Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Corte Suprema de los EEUU. Mostrar todas las entradas
Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Corte Suprema de los EEUU. Mostrar todas las entradas

lunes, 20 de junio de 2011

La Corte Conservadora ataca de nuevo (recién) en USA

The New York Times

June 20, 2011
Justices Rule for Wal-Mart in Bias Case
By ADAM LIPTAK

WASHINGTON — The Supreme Court on Monday threw out the largest employment discrimination case in the nation’s history. The suit, against Wal-Mart Stores, had sought to consolidate the claims of as many as 1.5 million women on the theory that the company had discriminated against them in pay and promotion decisions.

The lawsuit sought back pay that could have amounted to billions of dollars. But the Supreme Court, in a decision that was unanimous on this point, said the plaintiffs’ lawyers had improperly sued under a part of the class action rules that was not primarily concerned with monetary claims.

The court did not decide whether Wal-Mart had in fact discriminated against the women, only that they could not proceed as a class. The court’s decision on that issue will almost certainly affect all sorts of other class-action suits, including ones asserting antitrust, securities and product liability violations.

In a broader question in the Wal-Mart case, the court divided 5-to-4 along ideological lines on whether the suit satisfied a requirement of the class action rules that “there are questions of law or fact common to the class.”

Justice Antonin Scalia, writing for the majority, said the plaintiffs could not show that they would receive “a common answer to the crucial question why was I disfavored.” He noted that Wal-Mart operated some 3,400 stores, had an express policy forbidding discrimination and granted local managers substantial discretion.

“On its face, of course, that is just the opposite of a uniform employment practice that would provide the commonality needed for a class action,” Justice Scalia wrote. “It is a policy against having uniform employment practices.”

The plaintiffs sought to overcome the gap with testimony from William T. Bielby, a sociologist specializing in “social framework analysis.”

Professor Bielby told the trial court that he had collected general “scientific evidence about gender bias, stereotypes and the structure and dynamics of gender inequality in organizations.” He said he also reviewed extensive litigation materials gathered by the lawyers in the case.

He concluded that two aspects of Wal-Mart’s corporate culture might be to blame for pay and other disparities. One was a centralized personnel policy. The other was allowing subjective decisions by managers in the field. Together, he said, those factors allowed stereotypes to infect personnel choices, making “decisions about compensation and promotion vulnerable to gender bias.”

Justice Scalia rejected the testimony, which he called crucial to the plaintiffs’ case.

“It is worlds away,” he wrote, “from ‘significant proof’ that Wal-Mart ‘operated under a general policy of discrimination.’ ”

Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Anthony M. Kennedy, Clarence Thomas and Samuel A. Alito Jr. joined Justice Scalia’s majority opinion on that broader point.

Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, joined by Justices Stephen G. Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, dissented in part. Justice Ginsburg said the court had gone too far in its broader ruling.

“The practice of delegating to supervisors large discretion to make personnel decisions, uncontrolled by formal standards, has long been known to have the potential to produce disparate effects,” she wrote. “Managers, like all humankind, may be prey to biases of which they are unaware.”

miércoles, 19 de mayo de 2010

Más sobre Kagan y sus ideas

Esta vez se trata de una tesis que escribio en 1983! Es sobre "the exclusionary rule" y se relaciona con sus ideas acerca del vínculo entre la ley y el cambio social.

El trabajo está incluido en las 6.000 páginas de documentos que Kagan mandó al Senado, eso comprende 200 páginas de respuestas a preguntas de los Senadores, artículos, discursos, participación en congresos, etc.

domingo, 16 de agosto de 2009

Sotomayor y Política de Indentidad

Perdón que está en inglés, pero es alucinante... Los Repúblicanos estaban como locos con el comentario de Sotomayor de 2001 sobre la mayor capacidad de las mujeres latinas respecto de los jueces blancos para juzgar casos que involucran a minorías. Ver acá.

Primero, fíjense en la intervención del Senador Republicano Grassley diciendo que una jueza que dijo eso está defendiendo la posibilidad de que un juez ponga su pulgar en la balanza de la justicia desequilibrandola a favor de una de las partes... Otro sostiene que decir eso es ser racista... (el comentario del conductor sobre "raceless" es muy bueno). Luego, MacCain dice que es la candidata es bárbara, con una vida "inspiradora", pero que eso no la hará una buena jueza (?????)... Y los demócratas sólo hablan de su pasado en el Bronx, de su paciencia para soportar las audiencias sin sacarse, de su vida ejemplar, de sus sacrificios, y hasta de como tener diabetes la vuelve una persona disciplinada y una mejor jueza.... El conductor del programa se queja de que nadie hable de cómo será como jueza, en una crítica directa y explícita a la "política de la identidad", algo que también deja mucha tela para cortar... Lo bueno: que este debate se dio y que hasta desde este rincón del mundo podemos reirnos de él, criticarlo, analizarlo y hasta discutirlo en mi curso sobre Igualdad ... Todos los temas del curso estan allí (igualdad y grupos, acción afirmativa, cuotas, política de identidad, multicuturalismo, etc..).

The Daily Show With Jon StewartMon - Thurs 11p / 10c
White Men Can't Judge - Sotomayor Confirmation
www.thedailyshow.com
Daily Show
Full Episodes
Political HumorSpinal Tap Performance

sábado, 15 de agosto de 2009

Sonia Sotomayor, una “latina inteligente”

DESIGNACIÓN EN LA CORTE SUPREMA DE ESTADOS UNIDOS
Sonia Sotomayor, una “latina inteligente”
Por Roberto Saba

Publicado en Revista Debate
15 de agosto de 2009




En el sistema democrático de Estados Unidos, al igual que en el de la Argentina, todos los jueces tienen la facultad de impedir la aplicación de las decisiones tomadas por el Congreso o el presidente si entienden que ellas se encuentran en contradicción con la Constitución. Este poder enorme en cabeza del Poder Judicial busca evitar que los derechos de las minorías estén a merced de la voluntad de las mayorías en el gobierno. Por otro lado, la Constitución es un texto altamente indeterminado, diseñado para soportar el paso del tiempo, por lo que es inevitable que, al aplicarlo, los jueces deban interpretarlo y, para ello, tomar decisiones que involucran juicios de valor.

Por ello, la elección de un juez no puede ser jamás una decisión políticamente aséptica. Ella requiere realizar consideraciones respecto de sus posiciones políticas y morales, y no meramente de índole técnica. La Constitución de Estados Unidos de 1787, y la de nuestro país de 1853, así lo entienden desde que todos los jueces en ambos casos deben ser propuestos por el presidente y aprobados por el Senado, donde se espera que se dé un debate profundamente político sobre los candidatos.
Un suceso que tuvo lugar en Estados Unidos en las últimas diez semanas es muestra cabal de ello. De él podemos extraer algunas ideas para la reflexión local. El Senado de ese país acaba de aprobar la designación de Sonia Sotomayor como la jueza número 111 de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos, propuesta por el presidente Barack Obama para cubrir la vacante producida por la renuncia del juez David Souter.

Sotomayor es de ascendencia hispana, se recibió de abogada en la Universidad de Yale y fue magistrada por 17 años en la ciudad de Nueva York. La jueza se enfrentó en el mes de julio durante cuatro días completos a las preguntas formuladas públicamente por el Comité de Justicia del Senado -compuesto por doce demócratas y siete republicanos- encargado de aprobar su nominación al pleno de la Cámara. Todos los medios del país cubrieron en profundidad los debates.

El mundo entero pudo seguir esas discusiones por Internet. Los senadores escrutaron al detalle las ideas de la candidata sobre cómo debería interpretarse la Constitución y qué valor debe darse a los precedentes. Los medios interpelaban a sus lectores: ¿son los jueces meros árbitros de un juego en el que se aplican las reglas de la Constitución, o deben ser ellos “activistas” en el sentido de decidir los casos que les someten de acuerdo con el valor justicia? ¿Es factible hacer esta distinción? ¿Es posible aplicar la ley sin comprometer valoraciones del que la aplica?




El debate se tensó a raíz de una afirmación que la jueza había realizado en 2001, cuando dijo públicamente que ella pensaba, en referencia a la situación de algunas minorías, que una “latina inteligente” podía llegar a mejores conclusiones que un hombre blanco que no había vivido las experiencias que seguramente tuvo la primera. Esta afirmación generó la excusa para la oposición de sectores conservadores que sostuvieron que no sería una jueza imparcial. Un senador republicano sostuvo que la afirmación de la nominada implicaba que ella creía que un juez hombre decide de un modo diferente a como lo hace una jueza mujer, y eso, afirmó, es “filosóficamente incompatible con el sistema de justicia de Estados Unidos”. Sotomayor dijo haber cometido un error al hacer su comentario, lo que le valió algunas críticas desde la izquierda.

Sin embargo, este arrepentimiento sumado a su aparente desacuerdo con la afirmación del presidente Obama de que un juez necesita tener empatía por aquéllos que se presentan ante la Corte, le ganaron algunos votos republicanos en el Senado.
Participaron de la audiencia pública, además de los miembros de la Comisión, 31 testigos que dieron su opinión sobre la candidata, tanto a favor como en contra. Finalmente, la Comisión del Senado aprobó su nominación a finales de julio y, la primera semana de agosto, el pleno de esa Cámara la confirmó en el cargo con el voto positivo de 68 senadores (todos los demócratas votaron por ella y 31 de los 40 republicanos votaron en su contra). Sotomayor se convirtió así en la tercera jueza mujer de la Corte Suprema de Estados Unidos y la primera de ascendencia hispana en la historia del Tribunal.

La legitimidad, la credibilidad y la independencia de la Corte Suprema y del Poder Judicial en general se logran, en parte, a partir del modo en que designan sus miembros. Debates robustos como el descripto son imprescindibles para reconstruir una magistratura en la que podamos confiar, por eso es preciso crear las condiciones institucionales para que ellos tengan lugar.

Transparencia para elegir jueces

Publicado en Clarín
12 de agosto de 2009


El método usado en la Argentina y en los EE.UU. para designar a miembros de la Corte Suprema es mejor que el oscuro sistema que existía aquí hasta hace poco. Por eso, convendría usarlo también para escoger al resto de los magistrados.

Por: Roberto Saba
Fuente: DECANO DE LA FACULTAD DE DERECHO DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE PALERMO

En 2003 el Poder Ejecutivo y el Senado de la Nación tomaron decisiones tendientes a hacer más transparente y participativo el procedimiento de designación de jueces de la Corte Suprema. A través del decreto 222, el presidente Kirchner se "autolimitó" comprometiéndose a hacer públicos los nombres de los candidatos por él propuestos para cubrir las vacantes que surgieran en ese Tribunal. El objeto de esta decisión fue someter a las personas nominadas al escrutinio público y a la crítica de la ciudadanía, antes de decidir si se enviarían o no sus pliegos al Senado para su aprobación.


http://www.horaciocardo.com/cardo.asp

Esa Cámara, por otra parte, modificó su reglamento y abrió una etapa en la que los miembros de la Comisión de Acuerdos, en audiencia pública, interrogarían a los candidatos sobre sus ideas acerca de cómo interpretarían y aplicarían la Constitución. Este procedimiento se aplicó por primera vez a las nominaciones de los últimos cuatro Jueces designados en la Corte, reestableciendo la legitimidad y credibilidad perdidas por el Alto Tribunal durante la década del 90.

Estas medidas, si bien fundamentales, no hacían más que tratar de forzar la puesta en práctica de un procedimiento que ya establecía la Constitución Nacional de 1853 y que ésta tomó de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos de 1787, país en el que, a diferencia del nuestro, el proceso se aplicó y perfeccionó con la práctica. En los días que corren tenemos la inusual oportunidad de poder comparar procesos y extraer conclusiones gracias al hecho de que la Comisión de Justicia del Senado de los Estados Unidos acaba de terminar con las audiencias públicas en las que interpelaron a Sonia Sotomayor, la candidata propuesta por el presidente Obama para cubrir la vacante producida en la Corte Suprema por la renuncia del juez David Souter.

Sotomayor enfrentó durante casi una semana a la Comisión que debía aceptar su nominación, obteniendo finalmente los votos favorables de los 12 integrantes Demócratas y uno de los 7 Republicanos.



Dos lecciones pueden extraerse de este suceso que podrían sernos de utilidad al momento de debatir en nuestro país sobre el proceso de designación de jueces, no sólo de la Corte Suprema.

En primer lugar, fue realmente impresionante la cobertura de los medios. El New York Times y el Washington Post, por citar sólo dos ejemplos, informaron exhaustivamente sobre los debates que tuvieron lugar durante los cuatro días de audiencias. Un periodista y abogado del segundo de estos diarios reportaba en un blog en tiempo real lo que iba sucediendo. El canal de televisión C-SPAN transmitió en directo las audiencias y las subió también a su página de Internet, algo que aún hoy puede verse.

En segundo lugar, llamaba la atención la robustez y calidad del debate, aunque los expertos dicen que hubo mejores. Fue profundamente educativo ver por Internet a los senadores y a la candidata sumergirse en discusiones sofisticadas sobre lo que se espera de un juez de la Corte: ¿debería ser un árbitro "neutral" o un activista de derechos?; ¿en qué debería consistir su teoría sobre la interpretación de la Constitución?; ¿qué valor debería darle a los precedentes o a sus propias convicciones?

La evidencia de este debate fueron las sentencias, los dichos y los escritos pasados de la candidata. Participaron de la audiencia, además de los senadores, 31 "testigos" que dieron su opinión sobre la nominada, entre ellos, juristas con opiniones favorables, ONGs críticas y partes involucradas en casos que ella había decidido durante los 17 años durante los que ejerció la judicatura. A su tiempo, el Senado confirmó la designación que convirtió a Sotomayor en la tercera mujer en integrar la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos y la primera de ascendencia hispana en la historia del Tribunal.

Es claro que este procedimiento es mejor que el oscuro método que usamos en nuestro país para designar jueces de la Corte hasta muy recientemente. Nos dio resultado para elevar la calidad y la credibilidad de nuestra Corte Suprema y podría usarse también para elegir al resto de los jueces, tal como lo requiere nuestra Constitución.

Es más, podría extenderse su utilización para designar al Defensor del Pueblo, al Procurador General, al Jefe de la Oficina Anticorrupción o a la cabeza de una futura agencia electoral o de acceso a la información pública, todos estos casos equivalentes de organismos que requieren de un elevado grado de imparcialidad.

Quizá sean estos los componentes posibles de la tan requerida reforma política

sábado, 2 de mayo de 2009

Retiro de juez permite a Obama influir en Corte Suprema

Por MARK SHERMAN y JENNIFER LOVEN © 2009 The Associated Press
May 1, 2009, 3:03PM

El presidente Barack Obama tendrá su primera oportunidad de influir en el rumbo del máximo tribunal del país luego del retiro del juez David Souter anunciado el viernes.

Obama declaró que para reemplazar a Souter, de tendencia liberal, nominará a un individuo "dedicado al estado de derecho". Se expresó "increíblemente agradecido por el dedicado servicio" del juez saliente.

"Para tomar esta decisión, consultaré con miembros de ambos partidos, abarcando todo el espectro político, y espero que podamos juramentar al nuevo juez de la Corte Suprema a tiempo para que él o ella puedan ocupar su asiento el primer lunes de octubre", declaró el presidente.

Souter, de 69 años, se retira después de casi 20 años en Washington.

El presidente interrumpió la rueda de prensa de su vocero para participarle a los reporteros que recién había hablado por teléfono con Souter.

Obama añadió que deseaba que el Senado confirme rápidamente al sucesor de Souter y que el nuevo magistrado ocupe su banquillo para cuando comiencen las sesiones del máximo tribunal en octubre.

Obama elogió a Souter, calificándolo de un juez imparcial y de criterio independiente. Souter le había enviado una carta a Obama el viernes informándole oficialmente de su decisión. El retiro de Souter probablemente no alterará el equilibrio ideológico de la Corte, que está dividida casi por la mitad entre liberales y conservadores. Se da por sentado que Obama eligirá a un juez de tendencia liberal, como Souter.

La decisión, sin embargo, podría llevar a otra mujer a la Corte Suprema para que acompañe a Ruth Bader Ginsburg, quien actualmente es la única mujer en el tribunal.

Con 69 años de edad, Souter es mucho más joven que Ginsburg, de 76 o que John Paul Stevens, de 89, los otros dos jueces, ambos liberales, que podrían retirarse en el futuro próximo. Pero esos jueces no han dado señal alguna de querer jubilarse y de hecho Ginsburg ha dejado claro que piensa seguir trabajando por varios años más a pesar de que recientemente fue operada de cáncer pancreático.

En Filadelfia, el senador Arlen Specter declaró que preferiría ver más variedad en la corte. "Creo que si tomamos en cuenta la proporción de mujeres en nuestra población, no es representativo tener una mujer entre nueve jueces", dijo Specter. Añadió que sería bueno también ver jueces de diverso origen étnico como hispanos o negros.

La reacción de los grupos de interés no se hizo esperar. "La retórica y las acciones de Obama dejan claro que buscará a algún activista de izquierdas que se dejará llevar por sus pasiones y no a alguien que pueda dictar fallos de manera independiente", declaró Ed Whelan, presidente del grupo conservador Ethics and Public Policy Center.

Nan Aron, presidente del liberal Alliance for Justice (Alianza por la Justicia) dijo: "Esperamos que el presidente Obama elija a un candidato plenamente cualificado que esté comprometido con los valores de nuestra constitución, que esté comprometido con aplicar la justicia para todos y no solamente para unos pocos".

sábado, 5 de enero de 2008

Aniversarios en la Corte de EEUU

Esta lista de "aniversarios" se la robe a Jack Balkin de su blog... Perdon Jack...

Supreme Court Anniversaries
2008 marks the anniversary of several important Supreme Court decisions.
JB

100th anniversary:

Adair v. United States, 208 U.S. 161 (1908)(striking down ban on "yellow-dog" contracts that forbade workers from joining trade unions.)

Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908)(upholding woman protective labor legislation)

Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908)(creating legal fiction of suing state attorney general to permit suits against states and get around Hans v. Louisiana's interpretation of the Eleventh Amendment)

Londoner v. City and County of Denver, 210 U.S. 373 (1908)(administrative agencies must provide due process for adjudicative but not legislative actions)

Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908)(upholding Kentucky law that banned racial integration by private universities chartered as corporations)

Twining v. New Jersey, 211 U.S. 78 (1908)(key case in debate over incorporation of the Bill of Rights, declining to incorporate Fifth Amendment's ban on compelled self-incrimination)

Bailey v. Alabama, 211 U.S. 452 (1908)(striking down peonage laws under the Thirteenth Amendment)[UPDATE: Actually the decision striking down the peonage laws is the second Bailey case, 219 U.S. 219 (1911), see Raphael's note below]


50th anniversary:

Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86 (1958)(cruel and unusual punishment to strip citizenship as punishment; origin of "evolving standards of decency" test in Eighth Amendment jurisprudence)

Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116 (1958)(recognizing right to travel under the Fifth Amendment)

NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449 (1958)(protecting freedom of association of NAACP from compelled disclosure of membership lists)

Speiser v. Randall, 357 U.S. 513 (1958)(striking down requirement of loyalty oath in order to obtain tax benefits)

Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958)(holding that state school boards resisting integration orders were bound by the Supreme
Court's interpretation of the Constitution).


35th anniversary:

San Antonio Independent School Dist. v. Rodriguez 411 U.S. 1 (1973)(holding that education is not a fundamental right and poverty is not a suspect classification)

Frontiero v. Richardson 411 U.S. 677 (1973)(applying heightened scrutiny to classifications based on sex)

Miller v. California 413 U.S. 15 (1973)(developing three part test for obscenity)

Roe v. Wade 410 U.S. 113 (1973)(upholding right to abortion)

Doe v. Bolton 410 U.S. 179 (1973)(upholding right to abortion)



25th anniversary:

Bob Jones University v. United States 461 U.S. 574 (1983)(upholding loss of tax exempt status to private religious school that discriminated on the basis of race)

City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health 462 U.S. 416 (1983)(striking down various Ohio restrictions on abortion; in dissent, Justice O'Connor first offers "undue burden" test)

INS v. Chadha 462 U.S. 919 (1983)(holding legislative veto unconstitutional)

Marsh v. Chambers 463 U.S. 783 (1983)(permitting state legislatures to employ chaplains for prayers)



20th anniversary:

Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier 484 U.S. 260 (1988)(limiting student speech in school sponsored activities)

Hustler Magazine v. Falwell 485 U.S. 46 (1988)(First Amendment prohibits public figures from using intentional infliction of
emotional distress as an alternative to defamation claims)

Lying v. Northwest Indian CPA 485 U.S. 439 (1988)(Free Exercise Clause did not prevent logging on Native Americans sacred land)

Morrison v. Olson 487 U.S. 654 (1988)(upholding constitutionality of independent counsel statute)

Thompson v. Oklahoma 487 U.S. 815 (1988)(holding execution of persons who committed crimes while under the age of 16 violated the Eight Amendment)

domingo, 30 de diciembre de 2007

Igualdad e Integracion

Sometimes there's no other way to achieve integration

Este comentario fue publicado en el Seattle Post-Intelligencer el 2 de septiembre de 2007.

By Owen Fiss
Guest Columnist

The U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in June disapproving the Seattle and Louisville school desegregation plans shocked the nation, and for many has been memorialized by Chief Justice John Roberts' catchy concluding sentence: "The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race." Yet the principle of colorblindness Roberts affirmed is not -- and has never been -- the law.

On this issue, Roberts spoke for himself and Justices Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas and Samuel Alito. Justice Stephen Breyer dissented, and in opposition to Roberts maintained that integration was a compelling state purpose. Integrated school environments promote equality of educational opportunities for disadvantaged students and improve intergroup relations in ways that benefit all students and furthers the democratic purposes of the Constitution.

In reaching this conclusion, Breyer comprehensively reviewed all the available empirical evidence, and he was careful not to limit his analysis to situations where segregation is the product of official state policy. Breyer also explained why it is sometimes necessary touse racial assignments to achieve integration -- there is no other way.

Justices John Paul Stevens, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and David Souter joined Breyer's dissent. Justice Anthony Kennedy joined Roberts' opinion, but only partially so, explicitly disavowing Roberts' prohibition against the use of race in making student assignments. In the same key as Breyer, Kennedy spoke eloquently of the nation's commitment to "an integrated society." Referring to the Roberts opinion, Kennedy continued: "To the extent that the plurality opinion suggests that the Constitution mandates the status quo of racial isolation in schools, it is, in my view, profoundly mistaken."

Kennedy even went on to identify a number of the means that school boards might use to achieve racial integration -- strategic location of new schools on the borders of black and white neighborhoods; drawing geographic attendance zones in such a way to avoid reinforcing segregated housing patterns; the establishment of magnet programs that would attract students of both races; and the targeted recruitment of faculty and students.

What troubled Kennedy above all about the Seattle and Louisville plans was not their overarching integrative purpose or even the fact that they were race-conscious, but rather that they denied a child's choice of school based on how the school boards might classify that child -- as white or non-white. As Kennedy explained: "Crude measures of this sort threatened to reduce children to racial chits valued and traded according to one school's supply and another's demand."

Breyer showed, successfully to my mind, why the Seattle and Louisville plans did not entail the reductionism that so bothered
Kennedy. As Breyer emphasized, most of the children were assigned to schools on the basis of their choice. Now and then an applicant might, on the basis of race, be denied a choice, but that child would be assigned to another school in the system that is presumably as good as the one he or she preferred. In the context of elementary and secondary school assignments, admission is generally not based on merit, and thus the rejected applicant is not likely to be subject to the kind of stigma arguably entailed in being rejected from a prestigious university.

In the end, Kennedy remained unpersuaded by Breyer's analysis, but he carefully confined his ruling to the case and record before the court. In doing so, he left the door open for school integration plans of the type used by Seattle and Louisville. Specifically, Kennedy indicated he would permit the use of racial classifications in the process of assigning students to schools, much the same way as Seattle and Louisville had, although only after it has been shown that less invidious means had been tried and failed: "Measures other than differential treatment based on race first must be tried."

The immediate question before the court in the Seattle and Louisville cases was one of permissibility: Is it constitutionally
permissible for school boards to use race in making student assignments in order to achieve integration? A majority of the court -- Breyer, Stevens, Ginsburg, Souter and even Kennedy -- answered that question in the affirmative, although Kennedy would require school boards to try other means before resorting to racial classifications.

This question of permissibility is distinct from the question of obligation at issue in Brown v. Board of Education: Are school
boards constitutionally obligated to assign students to schools in such a way as to promote integration? Seeing school integration as a way of furthering equality of educational opportunity and as such a means for eradicating the racial caste structure rooted in the history of slavery and Jim Crow, Chief Justice Earl Warren and his colleagues answered that question in the affirmative.

This understanding of Brown was reflected in the Supreme Court's decisions in the New Kent County (1968), Charlotte-Mecklenberg (1971) and Denver (1973) cases. But in the 1974 decision in Milliken v. Bradley a newly formed majority reversed direction and announced a doctrine that allows school boards to assign students to schools on the basis of their residence even when the foreseeable consequence of that policy is segregated attendance patterns.

Justice Thurgood Marshall, dissenting in the Milliken case, decried that result "as a giant step backwards." The Seattle and Louisville decision did not question Milliken in any way and left the ruling of that case untouched. Those school boards willing to desegregate remain free to do so, and are able to use various strategies that employ race for that purpose, but those that are reluctant and unwilling to create integrated school environments -- the great bulk of school boards throughout the nation -- remain free from a constitutional obligation to do so.

The state of the law is not likely to change in the immediate future. Yet the Seattle and Louisville cases provided an important
opportunity -- indeed the first -- for Breyer to address elementary and secondary school desegregation. He rose to the occasion. In a coda to his dissent, which is likely to become as celebrated as Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes' valiant peroration on behalf of free speech in Abrams v. United States, Breyer spoke passionately of the promise of Brown and accused Roberts and those who joined his opinion of betraying that promise. He underscored the multitude of values furthered by school integration and although his immediate purpose was only to legitimate the use of race by schools voluntarily trying to achieve that goal, the implications of what he said may well be broader.

Breyer said -- and here Kennedy echoed his sentiments -- that school integration provides equality of educational opportunities and furthers the democratic aims of the Constitution, and for that reason is a compelling, indeed urgent, government purpose. If this is the case, might not the action of a school board assigning students to schools in a way that segregates them violate the Constitution, even if that segregation is produced not by Jim Crow, but rather by seemingly innocent criteria that inevitably and foreseeably produce the same result?

Owen Fiss is a professor at Yale Law School. He was special assistant to the assistant attorney general in charge of the Civil
Rights Division of the Department of Justice from 1966-1968.

domingo, 26 de agosto de 2007

Roberts, Alito and the Rule of Law

Tambien en la Suprema Corte de USA...

Faculty Blog, Chigago University, School of Law

June 28, 2007

For the Supreme Court of the United States, this will be remembered as the year of intellectual dishonesty. In their Senate confirmation hearings, John Roberts and Samuel Alito cast themselves as first-rate lawyers, as masters of legal craftsmanship who are committed to the principle of stare decisis.

John Roberts assured the Senate Judiciary Committee that judges must “be bound down by rules and precedents.” Invoking Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, he affirmed that “the founders appreciated the role of precedent in promoting evenhandedness, predictability, stability,” and “integrity in the judicial process.” Although acknowledging that it is sometimes necessary for judges to reconsider precedents, he stressed that this should be reserved for exceptional circumstances, where a decision has proved clearly “unworkable” over time. But in general, “a sound judicial philosophy should reflect recognition of the fact that the judge operates within a system of rules developed over the years by other judges equally striving to live up to the judicial oath.”

Similarly, Samuel Alito testified to the Senate that the doctrine of stare decisis is “a fundamental part of our legal system.” This principle, he explained, “limits the power of the judiciary” and “reflects the view that courts should respect the judgments and the wisdom that are embodied in prior judicial decisions.” Stare decisis, he added, it is “not an inexorable command,” but there must be a strong “presumption that courts are going to follow prior precedents.”

It is hardly surprising that Roberts and Alito would pay such obeisance to the doctrine of stare decisis in order to get themselves confirmed. Stare decisis is, after all, the bedrock principle of the rule of law. Not only does it promote stability and encourage judges to decide cases based on principle rather than on a preference for one or another of the parties before them, but it also serves importantly to reduce the politicization of the Court. It moderates ideological swings and preserves both the appearance and the reality that the Supreme Court is truly a legal rather than a political institution.

Disturbingly, John Roberts’s and Samuel Alito’s actions on the Court now speak much louder than their words to Congress. During the past year, Roberts and Alito have repeatedly abandoned the principle of stare decisis, and they have done so in a particularly insidious manner. In a series of very important decisions, they have cynically pretended to honor precedent while actually jettisoning those precedents one after another.

The tactic, in short, is to purport to respect a precedent while in fact interpreting it into oblivion. Every first-year law student understands the technique. It works like this: “Appellant argues that Smith v. Jones governs the case before us. But Smith v. Jones arose out of an accident that occurred on a Tuesday. The accident in this case occurred on a Thursday. We do not overrule Smith v. Jones, but we limit it to accidents that occurr on Tuesdays.” This illustration is, of course, a parody of the technique. But it captures the Roberts/Alito style of judicial craftsmanship.

Let me offer just a few examples. In Gonzales v. Carhart, the Court, in a five-to-four decision, upheld the constitutionality of a federal law prohibiting so-called “partial birth abortions,” even though the Court had held a virtually identical state law unconstitutional seven years earlier. As Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg rightly observed in dissent, the majority, which included Justices Roberts, Alito, Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas), offered no principled basis for ignoring the earlier decision. The only relevant change was Alito for O’Connor.

In Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life, the same five-justice majority held unconstitutional a provision of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act that limited political expenditures by corporations, even though the Court had upheld the same provision only four years earlier. As Justice David Souter rightly observed in dissent, Chief Justice Roberts’s opinion offered no principled basis for disregarding the earlier decision.

In Hein v. Freedom from Religion Foundation, the same five-justice majority, in an opinion by Justice Alito, held that individual taxpayers had no “standing” to challenge the constitutionality of the Bush administration’s program of faith-based initiatives as violative of the Establishment Clause, even though the Court had held some forty years ago that taxpayers do have standing to challenge federal expenditures on these grounds. As Justice Souter rightly observed in dissent, Alito’s argument that the earlier decision was distinguishable because it involved a challenge to a legislative rather than an executive program has no basis “in either logic or precedent.”

In Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District, the same five-justice majority (with Justice Kennedy filing a separate concurring opinion), in an opinion by Chief Justice Roberts, held that the consideration of race by school districts in assigning students to public schools in order to promote racial diversity violates the Equal Protection Clause, even though the Court had unanimously declared more than thirty-five years ago that such a policy “is within the broad discretionary authority of school authorities.”

As Justice Breyer rightly asked in dissent, “What has happened to stare decisis?” Breyer correctly observed that Roberts had distorted the Court’s precedents, “written out of the law” a host of Supreme Court decisions, and disingenuously reversed the course of constitutional law. Whereas Brown v. Board of Education had held that government could not constitutionally assign black and white students to different schools in order to segregate them, Roberts had the audacity to cite Brown for the extraordinary proposition that government cannot constitutionally assign black and white students to the same school in order to integrate them.

John Roberts and Samuel Alito billed themselves as legal craftsmen who would be guided not by rank ideology, but by a respect for the rule of law. They have now proved otherwise.

Posted by geoffreystone at 06:26 PM in Constitutional Law | Permalink

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